Journal of the Drylands 1(2), 2006

Journal of the Drylands 1(2) (full issue)

Special Issue "THE CHALLENGE OF DRYLAND FOREST REHABILITATION IN ETHIOPIA, VOLUME 2: Management perspectives and environmental and socio-economical benefits"

The environmental, socio-economic and managerial aspects of dryland forest rehabilitation in Ethiopia

 

Population Viability Risk Management applied to Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst in North-eastern Ethiopia

Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst, is an ecologically and economically important tree species found in the arid lowlands of Ethiopia. As Ethiopia is one of the world’s largest producers of Frankincense (olibanum), the exploitation of olibanum is one of the top employment generating activities in the remotest parts of Ethiopia and therefore a very important source of income for the rural people residing there. Due to this exploitation the potential range of forest communities with B. papyrifera is greatly reduced and the species itself is classified as endangered. In Amhara region, there is a large reserve of approximately 604,000 ha of this forest in Tekeze and Abay (Blue Nile) catchments, where the species is cohabiting the same niche with Acacia and Commiphora species. Based on this background the framework of a Population viability risk management (PVRM) is used for the design and evaluation of in-situ conservation strategies for B. papyrifera population in Amhara region. As part of the PVRM the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used to evaluate the conservation strategies with regard to the viability of Boswellia. The viability of B. papyrifera is described based on the results of an analysis of the current environmental, social and economical state and a characterization of the ecological parameters of its population. The significant risk factors such as successful regeneration, pressures like grazing and tapping or the kind of ownership are compared and prioritized against their impact on the viability of B. papyrifera population. Effects of different conservation strategies (e.g. change of tapping frequency, grazing regime) are determined through a qualitative assessment of the probability of a decrease of B. papyrifera population along with scenarios under different environmental conditions. In this context strategies combining silvicultural measures that increase regeneration and growth of Boswellia and measures that consider ownership and benefit sharing seem to be the most effective. The rational and pitfalls using the concept of population viability risk management is discussed along with the results of the scenario analysis.

Rehabilitation of Urban Forests in Addis Ababa

Urban forestry in Ethiopia has so far received limited attention. Over 3 million people live in Addis Ababa which is one of the fastest growing cities in Africa. Urban sprawl is demanding its toll on urban forests and green spaces which provide a wide array of benefits for urban dwellers. Particularly the urban poor depend on forests for livelihood, and they are most seriously affected by environmental disasters. This paper is primarily based on literature review and analysis of experiences. It analyzes what factors have led to deforestation in Addis Ababa and why previous efforts to rehabilitate the forests were not successful. The paper shows that the environment has significantly deteriorated since the 1970s. Deforestation was caused by absence of policy and law enforcement, insecure land and tree tenure, rapid urbanization, uncoordinated institutional framework, public dominance, lack of stakeholder involvement, and lack of integration of forestry issues in urban planning. The rehabilitation of forests in an urban setting is particular challenging due to population pressure, rural-urban migration, urban poverty, landlessness, commercialization of economy, competing land uses and high demand for construction material and cheap fuels. It is suggested that an isolated, traditional government-dominated approach to forest conservation and rehabilitation is doomed to fail. The way forward will be based on a holistic and integrated urban forest ecosystem approach which will include policy development, law enforcement, institutional reform, public-private partnerships, improved service delivery, capacity building and innovative urban forestry pilot activities.

Soil and water conservation through forest restoration in exclosures of the Tigray highlands

In the Tigray highlands, the establishment of exclosures has become an important measure to combat land degradation. In view of high land pressure and scarcity of firewood and grazing land, it is important to obtain profound knowledge about the benefits and drawbacks of the set-aside policy on different aspects of the natural environment. The objective of this study is to investigate hydrological and pedological effects of exclosures. To this end exclosure sites are compared with other land use types in similar landscape positions for soil fertility buildup, sediment deposition, rainfall-runoff relations and soil moisture. Impact of land use type is assessed through analysis of variance. The influence of topography and vegetation cover on sediment deposition and hydrological characteristics is investigated through correlation and regression analysis. Available phosphorus, total nitrogen and organic carbon increased under influence of vegetation restoration. Sediment deposition rates amounted to values of 26 to 93 Mg ha-1 yr-1 or 0.26 to 0.77 cm yr-1. Recent sediment deposited since closure was strongly related to distance from the top of the area, slope gradient and sediment source area characteristics. In exclosures, runoff coefficients were significantly reduced and moisture availability was improved as compared to degraded grazing land. Vegetation cover is the major explanatory factor for decreasing runoff coefficients. It is concluded that exclosures act as important sinks of water and sediment and as such contribute to soil and water conservation.

Actual and potential contribution of exclosures to enhance biodiversity of woody species in the drylands of Eastern Tigray

Vegetation, soil seed bank and socio-economic settings were studied in exclosures and unprotected areas, to investigate the role of exclosures in the rehabilitation of degraded drylands. Woody vegetation was assessed in fifty plots in exclosure and 30 in unprotected area, each measuring 20 × 20 m². Twenty-seven woody species representing eighteen families were observed in exclosures and fourteen woody species representing twelve families were recorded in open area. Higher abundance, density and basal area were found in the exclosure. An expanding population structure in exclosure, and obstructed population structure in open area, showed favourable succession in the set-aside area. In both cases, woody species were absent in the soil seed bank. Perception and attitude of communities towards exclosures was positive. Eighty-four percent support conservation and expansion of exclosures. Respondents want local laws (serit) to be improved and contribute to the management of exclosures, rather than to be punitive. Fifty-two percent of the respondents supported subdivision of exclosures; with care for individual management, in our opinion a threat to expansion and collective management. Finally, local people stressed their need to collect firewood from exclosures and wanted to be more involved in management planning and implementation of exclosures.

The potential and risks of using exotics for the rehabilitation of Ethiopian dryland forests

Climax tree species normally would fulfill the ultimate function at the end of the succession chain when land is rehabilitated. In the natural forest such trees would eventually be the veterans of the primary forest that usually replace pioneer trees of the secondary forests. Exotic trees, when used for plantations, usually fill the role of pioneers because they capture a degraded site easily. Such capturing of the site would depend on the site conditions as well as the adaptation of the species being used. Once the species grow well, it may be a deliberate decision not to replace such pioneers with climax forest species, the reason being the useful role that exotic species could play in the economy of the region concerned. However, there also may be risks involved in using exotic species in such an interrupted succession chain. Case studies from South Africa are discussed to, firstly, illustrate the potential of exotics, especially eucalypts, in providing much needed timber while also protecting the natural forest. These species, when genetically improved, can reach yields of more than 20 m3·ha-1·year-1, even under relatively dry conditions. Secondly, the risk of using exotics, such as eucalypts and Australian Acacias, e.g. in terms of water use, uncontrolled spread and destruction of local biodiversity, is discussed and examples are given of management procedures to manage the risks. Finally, some suggestions are proposed on strategies to be followed for the use of exotics in the Ethiopian highlands, especially on the questions how much, where and how to use them. It is pointed out that, with sufficient control, including spatial planning, policy and legislation, exotic species could play an important role in filling economic and social demands that need not be in conflict with environmental objectives.

Thr Prosopis dilemma, impacts on dryland biodiversity and some controlling methods

A study on the impact of Prosopis juliflora, a multipurpose leguminous species introduced to Ethiopia, was carried out at Tendaho State farm, Alidegi and Afambo, North-east Ethiopia. The study focused on the assessment of the uses and negative impacts of Prosopis and the evaluation of mechanical control and prescribed burning. Various PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) techniques were employed to collect ethno-botanical information on uses of the species. Mechanical control was evaluated by observation of previously cleared (deforested) grazing areas and farms in Alidegi and Tendaho, respectively. Data on number of stems per plant were collected along two parallel line transects to investigate the coppicing ability of the species. Prescribed burning was evaluated for mature stands (3-4 yrs) and young stands (< 1.5 yr). The result showed that Prosopis is employed for firewood, charcoal, forage, fencing, windbreak and other purposes. Mechanical control (manual clearance and using bulldozers) was found to be effective followed by proper management systems. Besides, it was discovered that the number of stems from the stumped stands was significantly higher (P < 0.05). Prescribed burning was destructive for young stands, whereas mature stands were not killed. Generally, cutting individual plants may aggravate the invasion by Prosopis unless proper management such as repeated clearance is employed. Thus, proper management and control of the species is urgent using the control methods described above in cooperation with the local people. Otherwise, more areas could be invaded and tribal conflict for the remaining few grazing and farrm areas free from Prosopis may turn into unexpected political crisis.

Economic Valuation Methods of Forest Rehabilitation in Exclosures

Besides regeneration of the vegetation cover, exclosures potentially have tremendous economic benefits in terms of production of wood and non wood forest products, restoration of water resources, soil protection, etc. The aim of this paper is to identify the best available methods for valuation of the goods and services of exclosures in the highlands of Ethiopia. Following the total economic value (TEV) approach of nature (resource) valuation, the economic value of closed areas could be categorized into two broad headings: use and non-use values. After careful identification of various functions/uses of closed areas in the study area, appropriate valuation methods are selected to capture the economic values of those functions. Mainly the following valuation methods are presented and discussed in the framework of exclosures: a) Market prices method: use of the prevailing market prices for goods and services traded in the domestic or international markets. b) Efficiency (shadow) price method: use of adjusted prices for market imperfections and policy distortions or for non-marketed goods. c) Production function method: estimation of the value of non-marketed resources or ecological function in terms of changes in economic activity by modeling the physical contribution of the resource function to economic output. d) Related/substitute good method: use of information about the relationship between a nonmarketed good or service and a marketed product to infer value. e) Cost based method: use of variants of a cost-based approach such as replacement cost, relocation cost, preventive expenditure, damage costs avoided, and opportunity cost to estimate environmental functions based on the assumption that the cost of maintaining an environmental benefit is a reasonable estimate of its value.

Scope for non-wood forest products income generation from rehabilitation areas: focus on beekeeping

When dealing with rural development and poverty alleviation, beekeeping is easily ignored. In this study we try to retell the lucrative part of the beekeeping story with clear convincing figures. Due to the much-diversified use of the different bee products the list of value-added products of beekeeping is surprisingly long. Many agricultural crops owe much of their economical value to pollination by honeybees. We prove that the honeybee is the second most important cultivated animal species at world level. Besides we show that honeybees can be easily integrated into agricultural and forest rehabilitation approaches. Clearly, beekeeping is an integral part of a truly sustainable agriculture, which can boost the income of the rural &#8211; and urban - poor. If the deterioration of the land can be stopped and research and training can provided, Ethiopia can turn into a beekeeping giant.

The Potential of Acacia senegal for Dryland Agroforestry and Gum Arabic Production in Uganda

Studies were undertaken to determine the agroforestry and gum arabic production potential of Acacia senegal in the drylands of Luwero, Nakasongola and Karamoja districts of Uganda. In the Luwero-Nakasongola drylands, farm-transect walks and questionnaires were used to assess the proportion of farmland under A. senegal and to collect data on the socio-economic profile of the farmers, their willingness to plant and manage A. senegal on their farms respectively. The gum arabic production potential of A. senegal in the Karamoja region was assessed by establishing 135 sample plots each measuring 20 x 20 m in undisturbed land, grazed land and cultivated land. Farmers are willing to plant and manage A. senegal as an agroforestry tree species in Luwero and Nakasongola districts. The density of A. senegal varied in Karamoja and was highest in Jie county. Although there were few trees in the gum producing age of 12-12 years, there is a potential for gum arabic production. Local people use the gum for repairing household items, and use the wood for hand tools, fencing, firewood and building poles.

Socio-economic Survey of Arba-Minch Riverine Forest and Woodland

A socio-economic survey was carried out on Arba-Minch riverine forest and woodland using PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) methodology in August 2003. Parallel to it relevant information was gathered from secondary source to enrich the findings. In addition, market and consumer assessments have been made in three markets and four institutions, respectively. Likewise, people living around Arba-Minch natural forest identified about 32 tree and 23 shrub species. The higher demand of fuel wood and construction materials as direct consequences of population growth and physical expansion of the town, encourage many people to extract forest resources in Arba-Minch riverine and woodland forest. Despite the huge pressure on Arba-Minch forest, no work has been done to promote energy-saving stoves, alternative energy sources or sustainable use of forest resources. This will directly or indirectly affect the life of thousands of people in the surrounding area. One of the important climatic functions of the forest is to lower the temperature of Arba-Minch town. However, due to the high rate of forest destruction, people living around Arba-Minch noticed a climatic shift towards higher temperatures. Another problem the town will face is the decrease of potable water. At some point in the near future, even the daily income of many individuals living from the forest will come to an end. Therefore, the current situation of Arba-Minch forest depletion demands urgent efforts to design an integrated approach for sustainable forest resource management and utilization. Participation of the community, which ould help to combat further forest depletion, will be of great importance.

Role of agroforestry in improving food security and natural resource management in the drylands: a regional overview

Various agroforestry technologies are finding enormous application in the East and Central Africa (ECA) region and are lifting many out of poverty and mitigating declining agricultural productivity and natural resources. Notable examples are: a) fertilizer trees that when integrated with inorganic fertilizers can double or triple crops yields in degraded lands, b) fodder trees that can be used in smallholder zero-grazing systems in ways that supplement or substitute commercial feeds, c) improved varieties of temperate and tropical fruits that can be used to supplement household incomes and nutrition, d) medicinal trees that are utilized on farm and conserved insitu, and d) fast-growing timber and fuelwood trees that can be grown in various niches within the farm and in commercial woodlots and plantations. While thousands of mallholder farmers are using these technologies, we are yet to reach the millions that need them. To achieve this goal, the key challenges that we must address include supply of quality germplasm, responsive extension services, policies that provide adequate incentives for investments in planting trees and natural resource management, and access to markets. This paper presents promising institutional innovations for overcoming these challenges that could be used to scale up impact of agroforestry for managing better the complex nexus between poverty, food security, and natural resource management in the dry lands in ECA countries such as Ethiopia.

The African Network for Agroforestry Education (ANAFE): Investment for sustainable land management

Agroforestry provides a variety of environmental conservation technologies and development services for improved livelihoods. These technologies and services are tree based, and thus require long term investment in land, humans, institutions and financial resources. The World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) has over the years focused on i) building competence in knowledge and skills in agroforestry ii) generating agroforestry technologies iii) advising on policy issues for the institutionalization of agroforestry in national programmes and institutions and vi) strengthening institutions for effective implementation and sustainability of capacity and programmes. Technologies were generated to improve soil fertility, provide fodder, fruits, medicine, timber and fuel wood. In building competence, institutionalizing and disseminating these technologies, ICRAF facilitated the formation and coordination of the African Network for Agroforestry Education (ANAFE) in 1993 to ensure the long term impact of these efforts. The network has greatly contributed and revolutionized the teaching, learning and research of agriculture through agroforestry education in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). It is currently contributing to the second reform and change agenda in higher agricultural, agroforestry and natural resources management education in Africa. This paper shares examples of the investment made, resources, methods and approaches used, and some results in agroforestry education in Africa in the last decade.

Perspectives for the Rehabilitation of Dryland Forests in Ethiopia

From 20 to 24 September 2004 a wide audience of international experts and national scientists, as well as land and forest managers gathered at Mekelle, Ethiopia to make the state-of-the-art of dryland forest rehabilitation in Ethiopia. This paper summarizes the conclusions that were drown based on the presented oral contributions, posters, and final plenary session. They are structured according to the themes forest resource assessment, forest conservation, restoration ecology, forest management, environmental benefits and risks, and socio-economic benefits and risks. For each theme conclusions are divided into observations and recommendations. Both can serve as a source of inspiration for further research, for policy makers and for governmental and nongovernmental organizations in the field.